A railroad tie (in US usage, generally known as a railway sleeper outside the US) is a rectangular object used as a base for railroad tracks. Ties are members generally laid transverse to the rails, on which the rails are supported and fixed, to transfer the loads from rails to the ballast and subgrade, and to hold the rails to the correct gauge Rail gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the heads of the two parallel rails that make up a single railway line. Sixty percent of the world's railways use a standard gauge of 1,435 mm . Wider gauges are called broad gauge; smaller gauges, narrow gauge. Break-of-gauge refers to the meeting of different gauges. Some stretches of track.

Traditionally, ties have been made of wood Wood is a hard, fibrous tissue found in many plants. It has been used for centuries for both fuel and as a construction material for several types of living areas such as houses. It is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. In the strict sense wood is produced as, but concrete Concrete is a construction material composed of cement and other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate made of gravels or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures is now widely used. Steel Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten. Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing ties and plastic A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic amorphous solids[citation needed] used in the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce costs. Monomers of plastic are either natural or synthetic composite ties are currently used as well, although far less than wood or concrete ties. As of January 2008, the approximate market share, in North America, for traditional and wood ties was 91.5%, whereas the approximate combined market share for (all) concrete, steel, azobe (exotic hardwood) and plastic composite ties was 8.5%.[1]

Ties are normally laid on top of track ballast Track ballast forms the trackbed upon which railway sleepers or railroad ties (US) are laid. It is packed between, below, and around the ties. It is used to facilitate drainage of water, to distribute the load from the railroad ties, and also to keep down vegetation that might interfere with the track structure. This also serves to hold the track, which supports and holds them in place, and provides drainage and flexibility. Heavy crushed stone In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids is the normal material for the ballast, but on lines with lower speeds and weight, sand Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles, gravel Gravel is rock that is of a specific particle size range. Specifically, it is any loose rock that is larger than 2 mm in its smallest dimension (about 1/12 of an inch) and no more than 64 mm (2.5 in). The next smaller size class in geology is sand, which is >0.0625 to 2 mm (0.0025 to 0.0787 in) in size. The next larger size is cobble, which is &, and even ash from the fires of coal-fired steam locomotives have been used.

Approximately 3000 ties are used per mile of railroad track. Ties/sleepers are set much closer together in the USA, where rails are traditionally joined to the track by a railroad spike rather than the substantial iron/steel chairs used in Europe.

Contents

Types

Stone block

The type of sleeper used on the predecessors of the first true railway (Liverpool and Manchester Railway The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was the world's first inter-city passenger railway in which all the trains were timetabled and were hauled for most of the distance solely by steam locomotives. The line opened on 15 September 1830 and ran between the cities of Liverpool and Manchester in North West England in the United Kingdom. The L&MR) consisted of a pair of stone blocks laid into the ground, with the chairs holding the rails fixed to those blocks. One advantage of this method of construction was that it allowed horses to tread the middle path without the risk of tripping. In railway use with ever heavier locomotives, it was found that it was hard to maintain the correct gauge Rail gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the heads of the two parallel rails that make up a single railway line. Sixty percent of the world's railways use a standard gauge of 1,435 mm . Wider gauges are called broad gauge; smaller gauges, narrow gauge. Break-of-gauge refers to the meeting of different gauges. Some stretches of track. The stone blocks were in any case unsuitable on soft ground, where something like timber sleepers had to be used. Two centuries later, stone sleepers would reappear in the form of slab track.

Wooden

A variant fastening of rails to wooden ties

Timber ties are usually of a variety of hardwoods Hardwood is wood from angiosperm trees . It may also be used for those trees themselves: these are usually broad-leaved; in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen, oak An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist on earth. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus. The genus is native to the northern hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cold latitudes to tropical Asia and the Americas being a popular material.[2] Some lines use softwoods The term softwood is used to describe wood from conifers. It may also be used to describe these trees, which tend to be evergreen, notable exceptions being bald cypress and the larches, sometimes due to material necessity; while they have the advantage of accepting treatment All measures that are taken to ensure a long life of wood fall under the definition wood preservation . Apart from structural wood preservation measures, there are a number of different (chemical) preservatives and processes (also known as timber treatment or lumber treatment) that can extend the life of wood, timber, wood structures or engineered more readily, they are more susceptible to wear.[2] They are often heavily creosoted Creosote or pitch oil is the name used for a variety of products that include wood creosote and coal tar creosote. The word is also used to describe the black oily accretion that builds up inside of chimney flues as a result of incomplete burning of wood or coal. Commercially, wood creosote is created by high temperature treatment of beech and or, less often, treated with other preservatives All measures that are taken to ensure a long life of wood fall under the definition wood preservation . Apart from structural wood preservation measures, there are a number of different (chemical) preservatives and processes (also known as timber treatment or lumber treatment) that can extend the life of wood, timber, wood structures or engineered, although some timbers (such as sal This tree is native to southern Asia, ranging south of the Himalaya, from Myanmar in the east to India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. In India it extends from Assam, Bengal and Jharkhand west to the Shivalik Hills in Haryana, east of the Yamuna. The range also extends through the Eastern Ghats and to the eastern Vindhya and Satpura ranges of central) are durable enough that they can be used untreated.[3]

The main problems with wood ties, other than the environmentally damaging creosote treating is its tendency to rot, split, plate-cut, spike-pull and susceptibility to insect infestation.

Concrete

Interest in concrete railroad ties was revived due to material shortages after World War II Albania · Australia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belarus · Belgium · Brazil · Bulgaria · Burma · Cambodia · Canada · Ceylon (Sri Lanka) · Channel Islands · China · Czechoslovakia · Denmark · Dutch East Indies · Egypt · Estonia · Finland · France · Germany · Gibraltar · Greece · Greenland · Hong Kong · Hungary · Iceland ·.

Concrete ties have become more common mainly due to greater economy and better support of the rails under high speed High-speed rail is a type of passenger rail transport that operates significantly faster than the normal speed of rail traffic. Specific definitions include 245 km/h (152 mph) for upgraded track and 295 km/h (183 mph) or faster for new track by the European Union. In Japan Shinkansen lines run at speeds in excess of 260 km/h (160 mph) and are and heavy traffic than wooden ties. In early railway history, wood was the only material used for making ties in Europe. Even in those days, occasional shortages and increasing cost of wood posed problems. This induced engineers to seek alternatives to wooden ties. As concrete technology developed in the 19th century, concrete established its place as a versatile building material and could be adapted to meet the requirements of railway industry.

In 1877, M. Monnier, a French France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, gardener, suggested that concrete could be used for making ties for railway track. Monnier designed a tie and obtained a patent for it, but it was not successful. Designs were further developed and the railways of Austria Austria /ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/ (German: Österreich (help·info)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.3 million people in Central Europe. It borders Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and and Italy Italy (pronounced /ˈɪtəli/ ; Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a country located partly on the European Continent and partly on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine used the first concrete ties around the turn of the 20th century. This was closely followed by other European railways.

Major progress could not be achieved until World War II Albania · Australia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belarus · Belgium · Brazil · Bulgaria · Burma · Cambodia · Canada · Ceylon (Sri Lanka) · Channel Islands · China · Czechoslovakia · Denmark · Dutch East Indies · Egypt · Estonia · Finland · France · Germany · Gibraltar · Greece · Greenland · Hong Kong · Hungary · Iceland ·, when the timbers used for ties were extremely scarce due to material shortages.[4] Due to research carried out on French and other European railways, the modern concrete tie was developed. Heavier rail sections and long welded rails were also being produced, requiring higher-quality ties. These conditions spurred the development of concrete ties in France France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian,, Germany A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, has been known and documented before AD 100. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806. During the 16th century, northern Germany became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. As a modern nation-state, and Britain The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland[note 7] is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land, where the technology was perfected.

Toward the end of the 1990s, the Long Island Rail Road The Long Island Rail Road or LIRR is a commuter rail system serving the length of Long Island, New York that has been classified as a Class II railroad by the Surface Transportation Board. It is the busiest commuter railroad in North America, servicing around 81 million passengers each year, and the oldest US railroad still operating under its, followed by Amtrak The National Railroad Passenger Corporation, doing business as Amtrak , is a government-owned corporation that was organized on May 1, 1971, to provide intercity passenger train service in the United States. "Amtrak" is a portmanteau of the words "America" and "track". It is headquartered at Union Station in, began rehabilitation of their lines in the New York metropolitan area The New York metropolitan area, also known as Metropolitan New York, Greater New York, or the Tri-State Region/Area, is the most populous metropolitan area in the United States and is also one of the most populous in the world. The metropolitan area is defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget as the New York-Northern New Jersey-Long and Northeast Corridor The Northeast Corridor is the busiest passenger rail line in the United States by ridership and service frequency. The route is fully electrified and serves a densely urbanized string of cities from Washington, D.C., in the south through Baltimore, Wilmington, Philadelphia, Trenton, Newark, New York, New Haven, and Providence to Boston. It also by installing steel-reinforced concrete ties, updating some of the busiest rail lines in North America in order to facilitate higher operating speeds.[5]

Steel

Steel Sleepers

In past times steel ties (sleepers) have suffered from poor design and increased traffic loads over their normal long service life. These aged and often obsolete designs limited load and speed capacity but can still, to this day, be found in many locations globally and performing adequately despite decades of service. There are great numbers of steel ties with over 50 years of service and in some cases they can and have been rehabilitated and continue to perform well.

Modern day steel ties, particularly in North America where track loads are greater than in other continents, are not the steel ties of old. Newer steel ties handle heavy loads, have proven performance in signalized track, and handle adverse track conditions. Of high importance to railroad companies is the fact that steel ties are more economical to install in new construction than creosote treated wood ties and concrete ties.[citation needed] Steel ties are 100% recyclable and require up to 60% less ballast than concrete ties and up to 45% less than wood ties.

Steel ties are utilized in nearly all sectors of the worldwide railroad systems including Heavy-Haul, Class 1’s, Regional, Shortlines, Mining, Electrified Passenger Lines (OHLE) and all manner of industries.

Notably, steel ties (bearers) have proven themselves over the last few decades to be advantageous in turnouts (switches) and provide the solution to the ever growing problem of long timber ties for such use.

The steel ties’ cost benefits together with the ability to hold rail gauge, lower long-term maintenance costs, increase the life of other track components, reduce derailments and meet ever growing and stricter environment standards provide railroad companies with savings and capital to redirect to other areas of maintenance-of-way and business projects.[citation needed]

Plastic/Rubber Composite

In more recent times, a number of companies are selling composite railroad ties manufactured from recycled plastic Before recycling, plastics are sorted according to their resin identification code, a method of categorization of polymer types, which was developed by the Society of the Plastics Industry in 1988. Polyethylene terephthalate, commonly referred to as PET, for instance, has a resin code of 1 resins,[6] and recycled Recycling involves processing used, unwanted materials into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower rubber. These ties are said to outlast the classic wooden tie, and are impervious to rot and insect Insects are a class within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae. They are among the most diverse group of animals on the planet and include more than a million described species and represent more than half of all known living attack,[7][8][9] provide additional lateral stability,[7] while otherwise exhibiting properties similar to their wooden counterparts in terms of damping impact loads and sound absorption. More pragmatically, they offer the advantage of being able to replace wooden ties piecemeal; concrete ties use different equipment and require that the trackbed be all concrete or none.[10]

Aside from the environmental benefits of using recycled material, plastic ties usually replace hardwood ties soaked in creosote Creosote or pitch oil is the name used for a variety of products that include wood creosote and coal tar creosote. The word is also used to describe the black oily accretion that builds up inside of chimney flues as a result of incomplete burning of wood or coal. Commercially, wood creosote is created by high temperature treatment of beech and, the latter being a toxic chemical,[11] and are themselves recyclable.[7] After several false starts that damaged the credibility of the composite tie industry—manufacturers that found themselves unable to deliver more than sample In general, a sample is a limited quantity of something which is intended to be similar to and represent a larger amount of that thing. The things could be countable objects such as individual items available as units for sale, or a material not countable as individual items. Samples of countable things are discussed in the article Sample. This quantities—plastic ties have gained some acceptance from railroads, the Union Pacific The Union Pacific Railroad (NYSE: UNP), headquartered in Omaha, Nebraska, is the largest railroad network in the United States. James R. Young is president, CEO and Chairman's million-tie order being seen as something of a breakthrough for the industry.[10] In 2007, the Long Island Rail Road The Long Island Rail Road or LIRR is a commuter rail system serving the length of Long Island, New York that has been classified as a Class II railroad by the Surface Transportation Board. It is the busiest commuter railroad in North America, servicing around 81 million passengers each year, and the oldest US railroad still operating under its began replacement of its wood ties to plastic on the Montauk Branch but have switch back to using wood in the spring 2010 track work.

Plastic/Rubber composite ties are used in other rail applications such as underground mining operations.[12]

Urethane railroad ties are being used (as of 2008) in several German railway spurs such as the Leverkusen Chempark Leverkusen is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located on the eastern bank of the Rhine, half way between Cologne and Düsseldorf site of Bayer Chemical Company Bayer AG (FWB: BAYN, TYO: 4863) is a chemical and pharmaceutical company founded in Barmen, Germany in 1863. Today it is headquartered in Leverkusen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is well-known for its original brand of aspirin.[13]

Some notable composite railroad tie manufacturers:

Tubular Modular Track

In Tubular Modular Track Tubular Modular Track is a pre-manufactured track system which is made up of twin reinforced concrete beams, linked with steel gauge bars, on which rails are continuously supported. There is a rubber pad between the rail and the longitudinal concrete beam (TMT), the "sleepers" are laid parallel to the rails and are continuous, rather like Brunel Isambard Kingdom Brunel, FRS , was a leading British civil engineer, famed for his bridges and dockyards, and especially for the construction of the first major British railway, the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His's baulk track. Every so often the two concrete sleepers are connected.[23].

Fastening rails to railroad ties

Main article: rail fastening systems

Various methods exist for fixing the rail to the sleeper (railroad tie). Historically spikes gave way to cast iron chairs fixed to the sleeper, more recently springs (such as Pandrol clips) are used to fix the rail to the sleeper chair.

Other uses

Wooden sleepers recycled Recycling involves processing used, unwanted materials into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower as sculptures Sculpture is three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard materials, typically stone such as marble, metal, glass, or wood, or plastic materials such as clay, textiles, polymers and softer metals. The term has been extended to works including sound, text and light at Northfield station

In recent years, wooden railroad ties have also become popular for gardening Gardening is the practice of growing plants. Ornamental plants are normally grown for their flowers, foliage, overall appearance, or for their dyes. Useful plants are grown for consumption or for medicinal use. A gardener is someone who practices gardening and landscaping Thales, an early Greek philosopher known for his view that "all is water," spent a considerable time thinking about the nature and scope of landscaping. Some of his students believed that in order for human activity to be considered landscaping, it must be directed toward modifying the physical features of the land itself, including the, both in creating retaining walls A retaining wall is a structure that holds back soil or rock from a building, structure or area. Retaining walls prevent downslope movement or erosion and provide support for vertical or near-vertical grade changes. Cofferdams and bulkheads, structures that hold back water, are sometimes also considered retaining walls. Retaining walls are and raised-bed gardens, and sometimes for building steps as well. Traditionally, the ties sold for this purpose are decommissioned ties taken from rail lines when replaced with new ties, and their lifespan is often limited due to rot. Some entrepreneurs sell new ties. However, due to the presence of wood preservatives A preservative is a naturally occurring or synthetic substance that is added to products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, paints, biological samples, wood, etc. to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by undesirable chemical changes such as coal tar Coal tar is a brown or black liquid of high viscosity, which smells of naphthalene and aromatic hydrocarbons. Coal tar is among the by-products when coal is carbonized to make coke or gasified to make coal gas. Coal tars are complex and variable mixtures of phenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , and heterocyclic compounds, creosote Creosote or pitch oil is the name used for a variety of products that include wood creosote and coal tar creosote. The word is also used to describe the black oily accretion that builds up inside of chimney flues as a result of incomplete burning of wood or coal. Commercially, wood creosote is created by high temperature treatment of beech and or salts of heavy metals, railroad ties introduce an extra element of soil pollution into gardens and are avoided by many property owners. In the UK, new oak beams of the same size as standard railroad ties, but not treated with dangerous chemicals, are now available specifically for garden construction. They are about twice the price of the recycled product. In some places, railroad ties have been used in the construction of homes, particularly among those with lower incomes, especially those residing near railroad tracks, including railroad employees. They are also used as cribbing for docks and boathouses.

The Spanish artist Agustín Ibarrola has used recycled ties from RENFE in several projects.

In Germany, use of wooden railroad ties as building material (namely in gardens, houses and in all places where regular contact to human skin would be likely, in all areas frequented by children and in all areas associated with the production or handling of food in any way) has been prohibited by law since 1991 because they pose a significant risk to health and environment. From 1991 to 2002, this was regulated by the Teerölverordnung (Carbolineum By-law), and since 2002 has been regulated by the Chemikalien-Verbotsverordnung (Chemicals Prohibition By-law), §1 and Annex, Parts 10 and 17.[24]

Ballastless track

Slab track, System "Rheda 2000", prior to concrete pouring.

From the late 1960s onwards, German, British, Swiss and Japanese railroads experimented with alternatives to the traditional railway tie in search of solutions with higher accuracy and longevity, and lowered maintenance costs.[25]

This gave rise to the ballastless railway track, especially in tunnels, high-speed rail lines and on lines with high train frequency, which have high stress imposed on trackage. Paved concrete track[26] has the rail fastened directly to a concrete slab, about half a meter thick,[27] without ties. A similar but less expensive alternative is to accurately position concrete ties and then pour a concrete slab between and around them; this method is called "cast-in precast sleeper track".[28]

Slab track, System "FF Bögl" on Nuremberg-Munich high-speed rail line slab track at St Pancras station

These systems offer the advantage of superior stability and almost complete absence of deformation. Ballastless track systems incur significantly lower maintenance costs compared to ballasted track.[27][29] Due to the absence of any ballast, damage by flying ballast is eliminated, something that occurs at speeds in excess of 250 km/h (150 mph). It is also useful for existing railroad tunnels; as slab track is of shallower construction than ballasted track, it may provide the extra overhead clearances necessary for converting a line to overhead electrification, or for the passage of larger trains.[30]

Building a slab track is more expensive than building traditional ballasted track,[29][30] which has slowed its introduction outside of high-speed rail lines. These layouts are not easy to modify after they are installed,[30] and the curing time of the concrete makes it difficult to convert an existing, busy railway line to a ballastless setup.[29]

Slab track can also be significantly louder and cause more vibration than traditional ballasted track. While this is in some part attributable to slab track's decreased sound absorption qualities, a more significant factor is that slab track typically uses softer rail fasteners to provide vertical compliance similar to ballasted track; these can lead to more noise, as they permit the rail to vibrate over a greater length.[27]

Where it is critical to reduce noise and vibration, the concrete slab can be supported upon soft resilient bearings. This configuration, called "floating slab track", is expensive and requires more depth or height,[30] but can reduce noise and vibration by around 80%[clarification needed].[31] Alternatively, the rail can be supported along its length by an elastic material; when combined with a smaller rail section, this can provide a significant noise reduction over traditional ballasted track.[27]

See also

References

  1. ^ M/W Budgets To Climb in 2008 Railway Track And Structures, p. 18, January 2008, accessed 01.24.08
  2. ^ a b Hay 1982, pp. 437-438
  3. ^ Flint & Richards 1992, p. 92
  4. ^ Hay 1982, p. 470
  5. ^ Amtrak National Facts, accessed 03.12.08
  6. ^ Plastic Composite Railroad Tie Facts Plastic Composite Railroad Ties website, accessed 01.28.08
  7. ^ a b c Grant 2005, p. 145
  8. ^ Harper 2002, p. 742
  9. ^ la Mantia 2002, p. 145
  10. ^ a b Schut 2004
  11. ^ la Mantia 2002, p. 277
  12. ^ article by Peter Cromberge, Mining Weekly, 04.01.05 accessed 06.10.08
  13. ^ Chemical & Engineering News, Vol. 86 No. 34, 25 August 2008, "Railroads tie up with urethane", p. 17
  14. ^ http://www.Polywood.com/ Polywood official website; accessed 06.17.08
  15. ^ http://www.itsrailroadrubber.com International Track Systems, Inc. official website; accessed 06.11.08
  16. ^ http://www.permaties.com Recycle Technologies International, Inc. official website; accessed 06.11.08
  17. ^ http://www.tietek.com/ TieTek official website; accessed 06.17.08
  18. ^ http://www.dynamic-cci.com/ Dynamic Composites official website; accessed 01.13.09
  19. ^ http://www.axionintl.com/ Axion International official website; accessed 02.05.09
  20. ^ http://www.integrico.com/ Integrico Composites official website; accessed 02.27.09
  21. ^ http://www.hansentie.com/ Hansen industries website: accessed 03.25.09
  22. ^ http://www.plasticties.com/ Performance Rail Tie website; accessed 07.14.09
  23. ^ RailwaysAfrica 2006/5 p. 22
  24. ^ Chemikalien-Verbotsverordnung (German)
  25. ^ J. Eisenmann, G. Leykauf: Feste Fahrbahn für Schienenbahnen. In: Betonkalender 2000 BK2. Verlag Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 2000, S. 291–298 (German)
  26. ^ Or PCT, or PACT
  27. ^ a b c d Krylov 2001, p. 177
  28. ^ Bonnett 2005, pp. 79-80
  29. ^ a b c Cook 1988, p. 233.
  30. ^ a b c d Bonnett 2005, p. 78
  31. ^ Lancaster 2001, p. 22

External links

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